What Is Cancer?

Cancer is a disease in which some of the body’s cells grow uncontrollably and spread to other parts of the body. Cancer can start almost anywhere in the human body, which is made up of trillions of cells.

Normally, human cells grow and multiply to form new cells as the body needs them. When cells grow old or become damaged, they die, and new cells take their place.

Sometimes this orderly process breaks down, and abnormal or damaged cells grow and multiply when they shouldn’t. These cells may form tumors, which are lumps of tissue. Tumors can be cancerous or not cancerous. 

Cancerous tumors may also be called malignant tumors. Many cancers form solid tumors, but cancers of the blood, such as leukemias, generally do not.

Benign tumors do not spread into, or invade, nearby tissues. When removed, benign tumors usually don’t grow back, whereas cancerous tumors sometimes do. Benign tumors can sometimes be quite large, however. Some can cause serious symptoms or be life threatening, such as benign tumors in the brain.

What Is Breast Cancer?

Breast cancer is a disease in which cells in the breast grow out of control. There are different kinds of breast cancer. The kind of breast cancer depends on which cells in the breast turn into cancer.

Breast cancer can begin in different parts of the breast. A breast is made up of three main parts: lobules, ducts, and connective tissue. The lobules are the glands that produce milk. The ducts are tubes that carry milk to the nipple. The connective tissue (which consists of fibrous and fatty tissue) surrounds and holds everything together. Most breast cancers begin in the ducts or lobules.

Breast cancer can spread outside the breast through blood vessels and lymph vessels. When breast cancer spreads to other parts of the body, it is said to have metastasized.

The most common kinds of breast cancer are—

• Invasive ductal carcinoma. 
• Invasive lobular carcinoma. 

 What Are the Symptoms of Breast Cancer?

Different people have different symptoms of breast cancer. Some people do not have any signs or symptoms at all.

Some warning signs of breast cancer are—

• New lump in the breast or underarm (armpit).
• Thickening or swelling of part of the breast.
• Irritation or dimpling of breast skin.
• Redness or flaky skin in the nipple area or the breast.
• Pulling in of the nipple or pain in the nipple area.
• Nipple discharge other than breast milk, including blood.
• Any change in the size or the shape of the breast.
• Pain in any area of the breast.

Keep in mind that these symptoms can happen with other conditions that are not cancer.

What is Anal Cancer?

Anal cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the anus. Most anal cancers are related to Human Papillomavirus (HPV) infection. Signs of anal cancer include bleeding from the anus or rectum or a lump near the anus.

General Information about Anal Cancer

• Anal cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the anus.
• Most anal cancers are related to human papillomavirus (HPV) infection.
• Signs of anal cancer include bleeding from the anus or rectum or a lump near the anus.
• Tests that examine the rectum and anus are used to diagnose anal cancer.
• Certain factors affect the prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.

What is Bone Cancer?

Bone cancer is the term for several different cancers that develop in the bones. When cancer cells grow in a bone, it can harm normal bone tissue. The type of cell and tissue where cancer begins determines the type of bone cancer. Cancers that form in the bone itself are called primary bone cancers.

Primary bone cancer is cancer that forms in cells of the bone. Some types of primary bone cancer are osteosarcoma, Ewing sarcoma, malignant fibrous histiocytoma, and chondrosarcoma. Secondary bone cancer is cancer that spreads to the bone from another part of the body (such as the prostate, breast, or lung).

Anatomy of the bone. The bone is made up of compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow. Compact bone makes up the outer layer of the bone. Spongy bone is found mostly at the ends of bones and contains red marrow. Bone marrow is found in the center of most bones and has many blood vessels. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow.

What Is Bladder Cancer?

Bladder cancer starts when cells that make up the urinary bladder start to grow out of control. As more cancer cells develop, they can form a tumor and, with time, spread to other parts of the body.

The bladder is a hollow organ in the lower pelvis. It has flexible, muscular walls that can stretch to hold urine and squeeze to send it out of the body. The bladder's main job is to store urine. Urine is liquid waste made by the 2 kidneys and then carried to the bladder through 2 tubes called ureters. When you urinate, the muscles in the bladder contract, and urine is forced out of the bladder through a tube called the urethra.

Other types of bladder cancer:

• Squamous cell carcinoma

• Adenocarcinoma

• Small cell carcinoma

• Sarcoma

• Start and spread of bladder cancer

• Invasive vs. non-invasive bladder cancer

• Papillary vs. flat cancer

Smoking. Smoking is the single biggest risk factor for bladder cancer. This is because tobacco contains cancer-causing (carcinogenic) chemicals. If you smoke for many years, these chemicals pass into your bloodstream and are filtered by the kidneys into your urine.

What Is Cervical Cancer?

Cervical cancer starts in the cells lining the cervix -- the lower part of the uterus (womb). The cervix connects the body of the uterus (the upper part where a fetus grows) to the vagina (birth canal). Cancer starts when cells in the body begin to grow out of control. 

 The cervix is made of two parts and is covered with two different types of cells.

• The endocervix is the opening of the cervix that leads into the uterus. It is covered with glandular cells.
• The exocervix (or ectocervix) is the outer part of the cervix that can be seen by the doctor during a speculum exam. It is covered in squamous cells.

What Is Colorectal Cancer?

Colorectal cancer is a disease in which cells in the colon or rectum grow out of control. Sometimes it is called colon cancer, for short. The colon is the large intestine or large bowel. The rectum is the passageway that connects the colon to the anus.

Sometimes abnormal growths, called polyps, form in the colon or rectum. Over time, some polyps may turn into cancer. Screening tests can find polyps so they can be removed before turning into cancer. Screening also helps find colorectal cancer at an early stage, when treatment works best.

What is Endometrial Cancer?

The lining of the uterus is called the endometrium. Cancer of the endometrium is the most common cancer of the female reproductive organs.

Cancer of the endometrium is different from cancer of the connective tissue or muscle of the uterus, which is called uterine sarcoma. About 80 percent of all endometrial cancers are adenocarcinomas. This means the cancer occurs in the cells that develop the glands in the endometrium. Endometrial cancer is highly curable when found early.

Uterine carcinosarcoma is a very rare type of uterine cancer, with characteristics of both endometrial cancer and uterine sarcoma. It is also known as a malignant mixed mesodermal tumor.

What Is Gynecologic Cancer?

Gynecologic cancer is any cancer that starts in a woman’s reproductive organs. Cancer is always named for the part of the body where it starts. Gynecologic cancers begin in different places within a woman’s pelvis, which is the area below the stomach and in between the hip bones. Types of Gynecologic Cancer

• Cervical cancer begins in the cervix, which is the lower, narrow end of the uterus. (The uterus is also called the womb.)
• Ovarian cancer begins in the ovaries, which are located on each side of the uterus. Some ovarian cancers can also begin in the fallopian tubes or peritoneum.
• Uterine cancer begins in the uterus, the pear-shaped organ in a woman’s pelvis where the baby grows when she is pregnant.
• Vaginal cancer begins in the vagina, which is the hollow, tube-like channel between the bottom of the uterus and the outside of the body.
• Vulvar cancer begins in the vulva, the outer part of the female genital organs.

What Is Kidney Cancer?

Kidney cancer is a type of cancer that starts in the kidney. Cancer starts when cells in the body begin to grow out of control.

Kidney cancer develops when cells in your kidneys change and grow out of control. People with kidney cancer may notice flank pain, high blood pressure, blood in their pee and other symptoms. Kidney cancer treatments include surgery, chemotherapy and radiation therapy.

The exact cause of kidney cancer is unknown.

Keeping to a healthy weight, a healthy blood pressure and not smoking is the best way to reduce your chances of getting kidney cancer.

What is Lip and Oral Cancer?

There is no such thing as a routine lip or oral cancer. Every patient’s disease is different, with different, individually unique genes and molecules driving that specific tumor.

At the OSUCCC – James, our lip and oral cancer subspecialists are world-renowned cancer experts who focus solely on these tumors and who reach across medical disciplines (otolaryngologist-head and neck surgeons, radiation oncologists, medical oncologists, neurosurgeons, radiologists, speech pathologist, pharmacists and more to design the very best treatment plan and therapies to target each patient’s specific cancer.

What Is Liver Cancer?

Primary liver cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the liver. Cancer that forms in other parts of the body and spreads to the liver is not primary liver cancer. The liver is one of the largest organs in the body. It has two lobes and fills the upper right side of the abdomen inside the rib cage. The main functions of the liver include the following:

• to make bile to help digest fat that comes from food
• to store glycogen (sugar), which the body uses for energy
• to filter harmful substances from the blood so they can be passed from the body in stools and urine

Types of liver cancer

Hepatocellular carcinoma and bile duct cancer (cholangiocarcinoma) are the main types of adult primary liver cancer.

What Is Lung Cancer?

Cancer is a disease in which cells in the body grow out of control. When cancer starts in the lungs, it is called lung cancer.

Lung cancer begins in the lungs and may spread to lymph nodes or other organs in the body, such as the brain. Cancer from other organs also may spread to the lungs. When cancer cells spread from one organ to another, they are called metastases.

Lung cancers usually are grouped into two main types called small cell and non-small cell (including adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma). These types of lung cancer grow differently and are treated differently. Non-small cell lung cancer is more common than small cell lung cancer.

What is Mesothelioma Cancer?

Mesothelioma is a type of cancer that develops in the lining that covers the outer surface of some of the body's organs. It's usually linked to asbestos exposure.

Asbestos exposure is the primary risk factor for mesothelioma. It accounts for up to 80 percent of all cases. Living with someone who works with asbestos may also increase an individual's risk for developing mesothelioma because asbestos particles can travel on skin and clothing.

Common symptoms of pleural mesothelioma, which forms on the soft tissue lining the lungs.

What Is Ovarian Cancer?

Cancer starts when cells in the body begin to grow out of control. Cells in nearly any part of the body can become cancer and can spread.

Ovarian cancers were previously believed to begin only in the ovaries, but recent evidence suggests that many ovarian cancers may actually start in the cells in the far (distal) end of the fallopian tubes.

Ovarian cancer is a group of diseases that originates in the ovaries, or in the related areas of the fallopian tubes and the peritoneum. Women have two ovaries that are located in the pelvis, one on each side of the uterus. The ovaries make female hormones and produce eggs for reproduction. Women have two fallopian tubes that are a pair of long, slender tubes on each side of the uterus. Eggs pass from the ovaries through the fallopian tubes to the uterus.

What Is Pancreatic Cancer?

Pancreatic cancer begins when abnormal cells in the pancreas grow and divide out of control and form a tumor.

The pancreas is a gland located deep in the abdomen, between the stomach and the spine. It makes enzymes that help digestion and hormones that control blood-sugar levels.

Organs, like the pancreas, are made up of cells. Normally, cells divide to form new cells as the body needs them. When cells get old, they die, and new cells take their place.

Sometimes this process breaks. New cells form when the body does not need them, or old cells do not die. The extra cells may form a mass of tissue called a tumor.

What Is Prostate Cancer?

Cancer starts when cells in the body begin to grow out of control. Cells in nearly any part of the body can become cancer cells, and can then spread to other areas of the body.

Prostate cancer begins when cells in the prostate gland start to grow out of control. The prostate is a gland found only in males. It makes some of the fluid that is part of semen.

The prostate is below the bladder (the hollow organ where urine is stored) and in front of the rectum (the last part of the intestines). Just behind the prostate are glands called seminal vesicles that make most of the fluid for semen. The urethra, which is the tube that carries urine and semen out of the body through the penis, goes through the center of the prostate.

What Is a Soft Tissue Sarcoma?

Cancer starts when cells start to grow out of control. Cells in nearly any part of the body can become cancer and can spread to other areas.

There are many types of soft tissue tumors, and not all of them are cancerous. Many benign tumors are found in soft tissues. The word benign means they're not cancer. These tumors can't spread to other parts of the body. Some soft tissue tumors behave in ways between a cancer and a non-cancer. These are called intermediate soft tissue tumors.

What Is Skin Cancer?

The skin is the body’s largest organ. Skin has several layers, but the two main layers are the epidermis (upper or outer layer) and the dermis (lower or inner layer). Skin cancer begins in the epidermis, which is made up of three kinds of cells—

• Squamous cells: Thin, flat cells that form the top layer of the epidermis.
• Basal cells: Round cells under the squamous cells.
• Melanocytes: Cells that make melanin and are found in the lower part of the epidermis. Melanin is the pigment that gives skin its color. When skin is exposed to the sun, melanocytes make more pigment and cause the skin to darken.

What is Thyroid Cancer?

Thyroid cancer is a type of cancer that starts in the thyroid gland. Cancer starts when cells begin to grow out of control. The thyroid gland makes hormones that help regulate your metabolism, heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature.

Thyroid cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the thyroid gland. Thyroid nodules are common but usually are not cancer. There are different types of thyroid cancer. Age, gender, and being exposed to radiation can affect the risk of thyroid cancer.

What Is Stomach Cancer?

Cancer starts when cells in the body begin to grow out of control. Cells in nearly any part of the body can become cancer, and can then spread to other areas of the body. Stomach cancer, also called gastric cancer, begins when cells in the stomach start to grow out of control.

There are many possible symptoms of stomach cancer, but they might be hard to spot.

What is Pediatric Cancer?

Cancer in children can occur anywhere in the body, including the blood and lymph node systems, brain and spinal cord (central nervous system, or CNS), kidneys, and other organs and tissues.

Most of the time, there is no known cause for childhood cancers. Childhood cancers may behave very differently from adult cancers, even when they start in the same part of the body.

Cancer begins when healthy cells change and grow out of control. In most types of cancer, these cells form a mass called a tumor. A tumor can be cancerous or benign. A cancerous tumor is malignant, meaning it can grow and spread to other parts of the body. A benign tumor means the tumor can grow but will not spread to distant parts of the body. Malignant tumors also usually grow rapidly, while benign tumors generally grow slowly.

In leukemia, a cancer of the blood that starts in the bone marrow, these abnormal cells very rarely form a solid tumor.

What is Hepatobiliary Disease?

Hepatobiliary disease is any disorder of the hepatobiliary system that impairs its normal function. The disease can range from minor infection or scarring to serious conditions such as cancer. The organs of the hepatobiliary system are the liver, gallbladder and bile ducts. 

The liver is one of the largest organs of the human body and is situated in the upper right portion of your abdomen. It performs some of the body’s vital functions including:

• Production of bile juice
• Storing sugars in the form of glycogen
• Purifying blood from harmful substances
• Making proteins that help in blood clotting
• Contrast-enhanced spiral CT
• MRI scans
• PET/CT scans
• Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS)
• Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP)
• Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP)

What is Upper Gastrointestinal (Upper GI) Cancer?

Upper gastrointestinal cancers include oesophageal cancer, stomach cancer, small bowel cancer, pancreatic cancer, liver cancer and cancers of the biliary system.

Accurate investigation and staging is central to the appropriate management of patients with upper gastrointestinal cancers.

What is External Beam Radiation Therapy?

Using a special X-ray machine called a linear accelerator, EBRT delivers high-energy rays to tumors. The machine delivers radiation from any angle and shapes radiation beams to the contour of the tumor. The machine moves around the body without touching the patient, aiming radiation at the cancer. Some types of focused EBRT target a tumor with higher, more precise doses of radiation, while reducing damage to healthy tissue and nearby organs. As a result, modern EBRT may help reduce the risk of side effects associated with traditional radiation treatment.

External beam radiation therapy comes from a machine that aims radiation at your cancer. It is a local treatment, which means it treats a specific part of your body. For example, if you have cancer in your lung, you will have radiation only to your chest, not to your whole body.

External beam radiation therapy is used to treat many types of cancer.

What is Brachytherapy?

Brachytherapy is a type of internal radiation therapy in which seeds, ribbons, or capsules that contain a radiation source are placed in your body, in or near the tumor. Brachytherapy is a local treatment and treats only a specific part of your body. It is often used to treat cancers of the head and neck, breast, cervix, prostate, and eye.

There are three types of brachytherapy:

• Low-dose rate (LDR) implants
• High-dose rate (HDR) implants
• Permanent implants

What is Systemic Radiation Therapy (SRT)?

Stereotactic Radiation Therapy (SRT) is a type of external radiation therapy which uses special equipment to precisely position the patient in order to deliver radiation to a well-defined cancerous tumor. With SRT, the total dose of radiation is divided into several smaller doses given over several days. Stereotactic radiation therapy is typically used in an overall treatment plan to treat brain tumors and other brain disorders.

Like other forms of radiation therapy, stereotactic radiation therapy does not involve the removal of the tumor. Instead, SRT causes the tumor to shrink by causing sufficient damage to the cells of the tumor to make them unable to grow. The damage accomplished through SRT procedures tends to produce results within a few months, indicated by shrinkage of the mass. 

The main distinguishing feature of stereotactic radiotherapy treatment, from other types of external radiation therapy, is the division of the daily doses of radiation into fractions. The number of fractions used for a treatment program can vary from between 3 and 30 fractions, depending on the individual situation and circumstances of treatment.    

What is Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy (SBRT)?

Stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT), also known as stereotactic ablative radiotherapy, or stereotactic ablative body radiation (SABR) precisely targets tumors with very high doses of radiation.

SBRT is used to treat smaller tumors. Among these are many types of primary tumors, often prostate cancer, lung cancer and kidney cancer.

One common side effect of SBRT is fatigue. Other possible side effects depend on the tumor’s location. For example, a patient with an abdominal tumor may have SBRT-related gastrointestinal problems. A patient with a tumor near a bone could experience bone damage.

What is Stereotactic Radiosurgery (SRS)?

Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS), involves the delivery of a high dose of focused radiation therapy to a small area in the brain or other parts of the head. This is usually delivered in one, or sometimes up to 5 treatment sessions. When one treatment is used it is termed SRS and if more than one treatment is used it is termed stereotactic radiation therapy (SRT).

Although it has the word surgery in the name, it does not involve any surgical cuts and is a non-invasive treatment for patients with tumours or cancers of the brain and head region.

What is Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT)?

Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy (or radiotherapy), commonly referred to as IMRT is a newer and more sophisticated way of delivering conventional radiation therapy. Not all patients will benefit from this advance in technology but many will. The main advantage comes from being able to more closely ‘shape’ the radiation field so that the tumour or cancer is more precisely targeted and the other organs and tissues that do not require treatment are more easily avoided. This often allows higher doses to be delivered to the cancer whilst reducing the potential side effects that can come from treating other adjacent areas in the body.

IMRT uses multiple beams of X-rays of varying intensity directed towards the cancer, angled from various directions around the patient. The standard treatment machine in Australia and New Zealand is called a linear accelerator and all newer machines have the ability to safely deliver IMRT. These machines are fitted with a device called a multi-leaf collimator (MLC) that allows the shape and intensity of the beam to vary as the treatment is delivered. IMRT is always combined with Image-Guided Radiation Therapy (IGRT).

What Is Cancer Screening?

Checking for cancer (or for abnormal cells that may become cancer) in people who have no symptoms is called screening. Several screening tests have been shown to detect cancer early and to reduce the chance of dying from that cancer.

Cancer screening means looking for cancer before symptoms appear, when cancer may be easier to treat. Learn about different screening tests and the possible benefits and harms of using them.

How Is Cancer Diagnosed?

There is no single test that can accurately diagnose cancer. The complete evaluation of a patient usually requires a thorough history and physical examination along with diagnostic testing. Many tests are needed to determine whether a person has cancer, or if another condition (such as an infection) is mimicking the symptoms of cancer.

Effective diagnostic testing is used to confirm or eliminate the presence of disease, monitor the disease process, and to plan for and evaluate the effectiveness of treatment. In some cases, it is necessary to repeat testing when a person's condition has changed, if a sample collected was not of good quality, or an abnormal test result needs to be confirmed.

Diagnostic procedures for cancer may include imaging, laboratory tests (including tests for tumor markers), tumor biopsy, endoscopic examination, surgery, or genetic testing.

What is Chemotherapy?

Chemotherapy is the use of drugs to destroy cancer cells. This type of cancer treatment works by keeping cancer cells from growing, dividing, and making more cells.

Chemotherapy can be used as a treatment for many different cancers. Your doctor may refer to chemotherapy as standard chemotherapy, traditional chemotherapy, or cytotoxic chemotherapy.

The word "Chemotherapy" ("chemo") is often used when referring to medicines or drugs that treat cancer. If your treatment plan includes traditional or standard chemotherapy, knowing how it works and what to expect can often help you prepare for treatment and make informed decisions about your care. 

The most common types are:

• Chemotherapy given into a vein
• Chemotherapy tablets

You may be treated with one type of chemotherapy medicine or a combination of different types.

What is Radiation Therapy?

Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high-energy x-ray or other particles to destroy cancer cells. A doctor who specializes in giving radiation therapy to treat cancer is called a radiation oncologist. A radiation therapy regimen, or schedule, usually consists of a specific number of treatments given over a set period.

Radiation therapy can treat many different types of cancer. It can also be used in combination with other cancer treatments, such as chemotherapy and/or surgery.

What is Hormone Therapy (HT)?

As you begin to transition into menopause, your ovaries no longer produce high levels of estrogen and progesterone. Changes in these hormone levels can cause uncomfortable symptoms. Common menopause symptoms include:

• Hot flashes.
• Night sweats and/or cold flashes.
• Vaginal dryness; discomfort during sex.
• Feeling a need to pee (urinary urgency).
• Trouble sleeping (insomnia).
• Mood swings, mild depression or irritability.
• Dry skin, dry eyes or dry mouth.

Hormone therapy (HT) is used to boost your hormone levels and relieve some of the symptoms of menopause.

What is targeted therapy?

Targeted therapy is a kind of cancer treatment that’s focused on genetic changes or mutations that turn healthy cells into cancer cells. To use targeted therapy, healthcare providers test for the genetic changes responsible for helping cancer cells grow and survive. Then, they identify specific treatments to kill those cells or keep them from growing. Targeted therapy helps healthcare providers treat cancer cells without hurting healthy cells. Healthcare providers have developed more than 80 targeted therapies to treat many kinds of cancer. Sometimes, they use targeted therapy as the front line or initial treatment. They may also combine targeted therapy with other treatments.

Here’s information on the two most common kinds of targeted therapies and how they tackle cancer:

• Monoclonal antibodies
• Small-molecule drugs

What Is Cancer Immunotherapy?

Cancer immunotherapy, also known as immuno-oncology, is a form of cancer treatment that uses the power of the body’s own immune system to prevent, control, and eliminate cancer.

Immunotherapy is a type of cancer treatment that helps your immune system fight cancer. The immune system helps your body fight infections and other diseases. It is made up of white blood cells and organs and tissues of the lymph system.

Immunotherapy can:

• Educate the immune system to recognize and attack specific cancer cells
• Boost immune cells to help them eliminate cancer
• Provide the body with additional components to enhance the immune response

What Is Cancer Follow up?

All cancer survivors should have follow-up care. Follow-up care for cancer means seeing a health care provider for regular medical check-ups once you're done with treatment.

These check-ups may include blood work, as well as other tests and procedures that look for changes in your health or any problems that may occur due to your cancer treatment. These visits are also a time to check for physical and emotional problems that may occur months or years after treatment ends.

Your follow-up care plan, along with a summary of your cancer treatment, is part of what is called a survivorship care plan. This plan will have all the details that you and your doctor should discuss to ensure that you get regular care after your treatment ends.